Notes to the New CNO Series

By Roshan Kulatunga

Subtle intellect remains the most essential trait for individuals steering maritime power. Yet the acquisition of maritime wisdom is not an overnight endeavor, it is cultivated through sustained engagement with centuries of thought, strategic practice, and the lived experiences of sailors, commanders, and statesmen. Renowned military strategists and scholars throughout history, such as Sun Tzu, Thucydides, Kautilya (Chanakya), Niccolò Machiavelli, Carl von Clausewitz, Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, Sir Julian Corbett, Admiral Raoul Castex, Admiral Sergei Gorshkov, and Admiral Wegener, have profoundly influenced the evolution of land, air, and maritime strategies. Their intellectual contributions to statecraft, military tactics, and maritime security continue to shape national strategies and doctrines. Naval officers and sailors in the 21st century should engage with this reservoir of wisdom and embed it into their professional ethos and education. It is vital for addressing today’s challenges posed by traditional and non-traditional threats.

Among the earliest military thinkers, Sun Tzu authored The Art of War approximately 2,500 years ago. Originally inscribed on bamboo strips, the treatise covers topics such as planning, the use of spies, the significance of terrain, and the concepts of strength and weakness. Written during the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BCE), Sun Tzu’s work became fundamental to Chinese martial culture and remains central to modern military education.

Thucydides, an Athenian historian, documented the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), fought between Athens and Sparta, the two dominant city-states of ancient Greece. His work, History of the Peloponnesian War, remains a cornerstone of political realism. Sparta’s eventual victory highlighted the limits of imperial overreach. Thucydides’ insights into fear, honor, and interest continue to shape debates in international relations, especially in contexts like the Gulf War and the post-9/11 era. His reflections provide lasting lessons on the dangers of hubris and the complexities of alliance politics.

In ancient India, Kautilya’s Arthashastra serves as a comprehensive guide to statecraft, diplomacy, and warfare. Spanning fifteen sub-books, 155 chapters, and over 5,000 verses, it articulates doctrines on governance, economics, espionage, and military operations. Central to the text is the “Six-Fold Policy,” which encompasses alliance, neutrality, hostility, preparedness for war, seeking protection, and dual policy, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to international relations. Kautilya’s focus on preparedness and managing alliances resonates strongly in today’s Indo-Pacific maritime landscape.

During the Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli, a Florentine diplomat, advanced strategic thought through The Prince and his writings on the art of war. Often regarded as the father of modern political science, Machiavelli emphasized that rulers must master the art of war to defend their states. Chapter 14 of The Prince warns against neglecting military studies, which inevitably leads to a ruler’s downfall. Machiavelli’s practical rules highlighted discipline and adaptability, qualities vital for modern naval officers navigating fluid strategic environments.

In the post-Napoleonic era, Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz established his classic work, On War (1832) with the statement that war is “the continuation of politics by other means.” Clausewitz contended that conflicts stem from irreconcilable political interests, with military force serving as a coercive instrument. Clausewitz’s focus on war’s political dimension remains vital today, reminding navies that maritime operations must be consistent with national policy objectives.

In the late nineteenth century, American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan revolutionized maritime thought with The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (1890). Mahan argued that control of the sea, achieved through decisive fleet engagements and dominance of maritime commerce, was the foundation of global power. His writings spurred naval expansions in the United States, Britain, Germany, and Japan, placing sea power at the heart of grand strategy.

From antiquity to the modern era, these strategists show that maritime wisdom transcends time and geography. It is not limited to technical seamanship or naval hardware, but represents an intellectual tradition that combines politics, economics, and military art. For 21st century officers and sailors, understanding this tradition is vital for confronting conventional challenges, as well as piracy, illegal fishing, climate-driven insecurity, cyber threats, and hybrid tactics in the maritime domain.

Cognitive preparation has to be one of the key considerations for the new U.S. Chief of Naval Operations. Knowledge alone is inadequate, it must be developed alongside intellect. By embracing these intellectual traditions and prominently embedding them in military education, navies can ensure their sailors are not just operators of ships, but custodians of an enduring wisdom that continues to guide humanity’s engagement with the sea.

Dr. (Commander Retd.) Roshan Kulatunga is a maritime security expert and a retired senior officer of the Sri Lanka Navy, with over 22 years of operational and strategic experience at sea and ashore. He specialises in maritime intelligence, naval operations, and countering transnational maritime threats. He holds a PhD in International Relations from the University of Peradeniya, where he currently conducts research on maritime strategy, sea power, maritime diplomacy, and the security of small island states. He also serves as a Research Associate at the Indo-Pacific Study Centre, Australia, contributing to policy discussions on regional maritime affairs. Additionally, Dr. Kulatunga lectures at universities, institutions, and conferences.

Featured Image: The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro (1672), Museo Marítimo Nacional. (Via Wikimedia Commons)